Britannica Links
- Communism Communism, the political and economic doctrine that aims to replace private property and a profit-based economy with public ownership and communal control of at least the major means of production (e.g., mines, mills, and factories) and the natural resources of a society. Communism is thus a form of socialism—a higher and more advanced form, according to its advocates.
- Warsaw Pact Warsaw Pact, formally Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance, (May 14, 1955–July 1, 1991) treaty establishing a mutual-defense organization (Warsaw Treaty Organization) composed originally of the Soviet Union and Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. (Albania withdrew in 1968, and East Germany did so in 1990.) The treaty (which was renewed on April 26, 1985) provided for a unified military command and for the maintenance of Soviet military units on the territories of the other participating states.
- The U.S.S.R. from 1953 to 1991 Stalin died a slow, angry, and painful death on March 5, 1953. He had suffered a stroke after retiring on the night of March 1–2, but this was not perceived until the morning because of his concern for personal security. The top leadership gathered around his bedside, but he could only move his little finger. Beria was delighted at his boss’s coming demise and showed it. This earned him the undying hostility of Svetlana Alliluyeva, Stalin’s daughter. Others in the entourage were more circumspect. They found themselves in a predicament: How were they to choose Stalin’s successor? How were they to ensure that no one acquired his awesome power? This would put their careers, and even lives, at risk.
- Joseph Stalin Joseph Stalin, Russian in full Iosif Vissarionovich Stalin, original name (Georgian) Ioseb Dzhugashvili, (born Dec. 18 [Dec. 6, Old Style], 1879, Gori, Georgia, Russian Empire—died March 5, 1953, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.), secretary-general of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1922–53) and premier of the Soviet state (1941–53), who for a quarter of a century dictatorially ruled the Soviet Union and transformed it into a major world power.
- Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev, (born April 17 [April 5, Old Style], 1894, Kalinovka, Russia —died September 11, 1971, Moscow, Russia, Soviet Union), first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1953–64) and premier of the Soviet Union (1958–64) whose policy of de-Stalinization had widespread repercussions throughout the communist world.
- Leonid Ilich Brezhnev Leonid Ilich Brezhnev, (born Dec. 19, 1906, Kamenskoye, Ukraine, Russian Empire [now Dniprodzerzhynsk, Ukraine]—died Nov. 10, 1982, Moscow, Russia, U.S.S.R.), Soviet statesman and Communist Party official who was, in effect, the leader of the Soviet Union for 18 years.
- Mikhail Gorbachev Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet official, the general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991 and president of the Soviet Union in 1990–91. His efforts to democratize his country’s political system and decentralize its economy led to the downfall of communism and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
- Boris Yeltsin Boris Yeltsin, in full Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin, was a Russian politician, who became president of Russia in 1990. In 1991 he became the first popularly elected leader in the country’s history, guiding Russia through a stormy decade of political and economic retrenching until his resignation on the eve of 2000.
Stages
- Library of Congress. (n.d.). Revelations from the Russian archives. Retrieved from http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/sovi.html
Relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were driven by a complex interplay of ideological, political, and economic factors, which led to shifts between cautious cooperation and often bitter superpower rivalry over the years. The distinct differences in the political systems of the two countries often prevented them from reaching a mutual understanding on key policy issues and even, as in the case of the Cuban missile crisis, brought them to the brink of war.
Alain Documentaries. (2014, March 11). Cold War - After Stalin (1953-1956) [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SXm7Mm-w_aA
- History.com. (2009). Nikita Khrushchev. Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/cold-war/nikita-sergeyevich-khrushchev
Nikita Khrushchev (1894-1971) led the Soviet Union during the height of the Cold War, serving as premier from 1958 to 1964. Though he largely pursued a policy of peaceful coexistence with the West, he instigated the Cuban Missile Crisis by placing nuclear weapons 90 miles from Florida. At home, he initiated a process of “de-Stalinization” that made Soviet society less repressive. - Sam Houston State University. (n.d.). The Warsaw Pact. Retrieved from http://www.shsu.edu/~his_ncp/WarPact.htmlThe Warsaw Pact alliance of the East European socialist states is the nominal counterweight to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) on the European continent. Unlike NATO, founded in 1949, however, the Warsaw Pact does not have an independent organizational structure but functions as part of the Soviet Ministry of Defense.
Kirby, K. (Producer). (1998). Soldiers of God: 1975-1988 [Television series episode]. In M. Smith (Producer), Cold War. Atlanta, Georgia: Turner Original Productions.
Ewart, E. (Producer & Director). (2011). The great dissident: Programme one [Television broadcast]. London: BBC.
Ewart, E. (Producer & Director). (2011). The great dissident: Programme two [Television broadcast]. London: BBC.
- The Cold War Museum. (n.d.). Fall of the Soviet Union. Retrieved from http://www.coldwar.org/articles/90s/fall_of_the_soviet_union.aspIn December of 1991, as the world watched in amazement, the Soviet Union disintegrated into fifteen separate countries. Its collapse was hailed by the west as a victory for freedom, a triumph of democracy over totalitarianism, and evidence of the superiority of capitalism over socialism.
- Brown, A. (2011, February 17). Reform, coup and collapse: The end of the Soviet state. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/coldwar/soviet_end_01.shtmlProfessor Archie Brown explains the reasons behind the dramatic collapse of the Soviet Union, and examines how such an authoritarian system could be dismantled peacefully.
- Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (2016). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://school.eb.com.au.db.plcscotch.wa.edu.au/levels/high/article/105999The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, (U.S.S.R.) also called Soviet Union, was the former northern Eurasian empire (1917/22–1991) stretching from the Baltic and Black seas to the Pacific Ocean and, in its final years, and consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics (S.S.R.’s).
- United States Department of State. (2013, October 31). The collapse of the Soviet Union. Retrieved from https://history.state.gov/milestones/1989-1992/collapse-soviet-unionAfter his inauguration in January 1989, George H.W. Bush did not automatically follow the policy of his predecessor, Ronald Reagan, in dealing with Mikhail Gorbachev and the Soviet Union. Instead, he ordered a strategic policy re-evaluation in order to establish his own plan and methods for dealing with the Soviet Union and arms control.
- Biirbulis, G., & Berdy, M. A. (2011). Meltdown for the first time, Boris Yeltsin's right-hand man tells the inside story of the coup that killed glasnost - and changed the world. Foreign Policy, (187), 71-76.The article presents an examination into the political conditions of the Soviet Union at the time of its collapse in 1991. The author, who was a close member of the administration of the Russian president Boris Yeltsin, describes the events surrounding August 19, 1991 when a coup d'état attempted to remove the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev from power and to overthrow the presidency of Yeltsin.
- Chechnya. (2016). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://school.eb.com.au.db.plcscotch.wa.edu.au/levels/high/article/22731#283782.tocSecessionist sentiments emerged in 1991 as the Soviet Union’s decline accelerated, and in August 1991 Dzhokhar Dudayev, a Chechen politician and former Soviet air force general, carried out a coup against the local communist government.
- Bilski, A., & Gray, M. (1994). A mountain of trouble. Maclean's, 107(52), 20.Examines the Russian invasion of the breakaway Caucasus mountain region of Chechnya. How the mainly Muslim area declared its independence from Russia in 1991; Launch of huge military operation by Moscow; History of Chechnya; Precarious independence that has come at a high price; Fears of Muscovites that the war could widen.
- Post, T., & Barry, J. (1995). Gaping wound. Newsweek, 125(3), 26.Reports on conditions in Chechnya and states that the month-old brutal and botched Chechen war shows the weakness of Boris Yeltsin and of the Russian Army. Speculation on what Yeltsin is up to and whether he is in control of his military; Overview of the Russian military forces; Why a weak Russia is dangerous.
- Cooperman, A., & Thoenes, S. (1995). A reach over enemy lines. U.S. News & World Report, 119(1), 36.Focuses on the Russian hostage crisis in Chechnya. Reaction to the seizure of 1,500 people by Chechen gunmen; Anger at the Russian government which has resulted; Why some believe the crisis could be the catalyst to end fighting in Chechnya; The outline of a possible compromise.
- Gray, M. (1996). Crisis over Chechnya. Maclean's, 109(4), 28.Describes the dilemma facing Boris Yeltsin in response to terrorist attacks and hostage-taking by separatist fighters along the southern region of Chechnya. Arch-nationalist Vladimir Zhirinovsky's response to ending the fighting.
- Nelan, B. W. (1996). Fury and defeat. Time International (South Pacific Edition), (35), 26.Chronicles the efforts of Alexander Lebed, Secretary of Moscow's Security Council, to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the civil war in the former Soviet republic of Chechnya.
- Quinn-Judge, P. (1999). War clouds over Chechnya. Time International (South Pacific Edition), (43), 36.Describes the atmosphere in Chechnya as war with Russia becomes a strong possibility. The Russian and Chechen strategies; The attitude of the Chechen soldiers; Comments from Chechnya's President Aslan Maskhadov.
- Quinn-Judge, P., Waller, D., & Zarakhovich, Y. (1999). Back into the inferno. Time, 154(15), 46.Discusses the Russian military mobilization into Chechnya, a predomiantely Islamic state. Russia's undeclared war with the republic; Chechnya's determination to secede from Russia; Concern that the conflict will escalate; Corruption in the military; Kremlin's politics of survival; How the invasion plan was leaked to the press.
- Dash, P. L. (1995). Russia's war of attrition in Chechnya. Economic and Political Weekly, 30(7/8), 369-373.
What began purely as a political tussle between Moscow and Grozny in 1991 turned into a savage war in 1994-1995. Yeltsin faced a dilemma: to attack or not to attack.
conservative man. (2015, May 25). Russia's war against Chechnya [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AaX9z-ojaFA